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Egyptian Civilization: "The Gift of the Nile"
Although
contemporaneous with Mesopotamia, civilization in Egypt evolved along somewhat different
lines. Of central importance to the development of Egyptian civilization was the Nile
River. That the Egyptian people recognized its significance is apparent in this Hymn to
the Nile (also see the box on p. 16): "The bringer of food, rich in provisions,
creator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of fragrance. . . . He who . . . fills the
magazines, makes the granaries wide, and gives things to the poor. He who makes every
beloved tree to grow. ..." Egypt, like Mesopotamia, was a river valley civilization.
The Nile is a
unique river, beginning in the heart of Africa and coursing northward for thousands of
miles. It is the longest river in the world. The Nile was responsible for creating an area
several miles wide on both banks of the river that was fertile and capable of producing
abundant harvests. The "miracle" of the Nile was its annual flooding. The
river rose in the summer from rains in central Africa, crested in Egypt in September and
October, and left a deposit of silt that created an area of rich soil. The Egyptians
called this fertile land the "Black Land," because it was dark in color from the
silt and the lush crops that grew on it. Beyond these narrow strips of fertile fields lay
the deserts (the "Red Land").
Unlike the floods of Mesopotamia's rivers, the flooding of the Nile was gradual and usually predictable, and the river itself was seen as life enhancing, not life threatening. Although a system of organized irrigation was still necessary, the small villages along the Nile could make the effort without the massive state intervention that was required in Mesopotamia. Egyptian civilization, consequently, tended to remain more rural with many small population centers congregated along a narrow band on both sides of the Nile. About one hundred miles before it empties into the Mediterranean, the river splits into two major branches, forming the delta, a triangular-shaped territory called Lower Egypt to distinguish it from Upper Egypt, the land upstream to the south. Egypt's important cities developed at the tip of the delta. Even today, most of Egypt's people are crowded along the banks of the Nile River.
The surpluses of
food that Egyptian farmers grew in the fertile Nile valley made Egypt prosperous. But the
Nile also served as a unifying factor in Egyptian history. In ancient times, the Nile was
the fastest way to travel through the land, making both transportation and communication
easier. Winds from the north pushed sailboats south, and the current of the Nile carried
them north. Often when they headed downstream (or north), people used long poles or
paddles to propel their boats forward.
Unlike Mesopotamia,
which was subject to constant invasion, Egypt was blessed by natural barriers that
fostered isolation, protected it from invasion, and gave it a sense of security. These
barriers included the deserts to the west and east, the cataracts (rapids) on the southern
part of the Nile, which made defense relatively easy, and the Mediterranean Sea to the
north. These barriers, however, did not prevent the development of trade. Indeed, there
is evidence of very early trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia itself.
In essence,
Egyptian geography and topography played important roles in the early history of the
country. The regularity of the Nile floods and the relative isolation of the Egyptians
created a sense of security that was accompanied by a feeling of changelessness.
Egyptian civilization was characterized by a remarkable degree of continuity over
thousands of years. It was certainly no accident that Egyptians believed in cyclical
rather than linear progress. Just as the sun passed through its daily cycle and the Nile
its annual overflow, Egyptian kings reaffirmed the basic, unchanging principles of
justice at the beginning of each new cycle of rule.
The Old and
Middle Kingdoms
The basic framework
for the study of Egyptian history was provided by Manetho, an Egyptian priest and
historian who lived in the early third century B.C.E. He divided Egyptian history into
thirty-one dynasties of kings. Based on Manetho and other king lists, modern historians
have divided Egyptian history into three major periods known as the Old Kingdom, Middle
Kingdom, and New Kingdom. These were periods of long-term stability characterized by
strong monarchical authority, competent bureaucracy, freedom from invasion, much
construction of temples and pyramids, and considerable intellectual and cultural activity.
But between the periods of stability were times of political chaos known as the
Intermediate periods, which were characterized by weak political structures and rivalry
for leadership, invasions, a decline in building activity, and a restructuring of society.
According to the
Egyptians' own tradition, their land consisted initially of numerous populated areas ruled
by tribal chieftains. Around 3100 B.C.E., the first Egyptian royal dynasty, under a king
called Menes, united both
The Old Kingdom
encompassed the third through sixth dynasties of Egyptian kings, lasting from around 2700
to 2200 B.C.E. It was an age of prosperity and splendor, made visible in the
construction of the greatest and largest pyramids in Egypt's history. The capital of the
Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, south of the delta.
Although they
possessed absolute power, Egyptian kings were not supposed to rule arbitrarily, but
according to set principles. The chief principle was called Ma’at, a spiritual
precept that conveyed the idea of truth and justice, but especially right order and
harmony. To ancient Egyptians, this fundamental order and harmony had existed throughout
the universe since the beginning of time. Pharaohs were the divine instruments who
maintained it and were themselves subject to it.
Although theoretically absolute
in their power, in practice Egyptian kings did not rule alone. Initially, members of the
kings family performed administrative tasks, but by the fourth dynasty a bureaucracy with
regular procedures had developed. Especially important was the office of vizier,
"steward of the whole land." Directly responsible to the king, the vizier was in
charge of the bureaucracy with its numerous departments, such as police, justice, river
transport, and public works. Agriculture and the treasury were the two most important
departments. Agriculture was, of course, the backbone of Egyptian prosperity, and the
treasury collected the taxes that were paid in kind. A careful assessment of land and
tenants was undertaken to provide the tax base. For administrative purposes, Egypt was
divided into provinces or nomes, as they were later called by the Greeks—twenty-two
in Upper and twenty in Lower Egypt. A governor, called by the Greeks a nomarch, was head
of each nome and was responsible to the king and vizier. Nomarchs, however, tended to
build up large holdings of land and power within their nomes, creating a potential
rivalry with the pharaohs.
Despite the theory
of divine order, the Old Kingdom eventually collapsed, ushering in a period of chaos.
Finally, a new royal dynasty managed to pacify all Egypt and inaugurated the Middle
Kingdom, a new period of stability lasting from c. 2050 to 1652 B.C.E. Egyptians later
portrayed the Middle Kingdom as a golden age, a clear indication of its stability. Several
factors contributed to its vitality. The nome structure was reorganized. The
boundaries of each nome were now settled precisely, and the obligations of the nomes to
the state were clearly delineated. Nomarchs were confirmed as hereditary officeholders but
with the understanding that their duties must be performed faithfully. These included the
collection of taxes for the state and the recruitment of labor forces for royal projects,
such as stone quarrying.
The Middle Kingdom
was characterized by a new concern of the pharaohs for the people. In the Old Kingdom,
the pharaoh had been viewed as an inaccessible god-king. Now he was portrayed as the
shepherd of his people with the responsibility to build public works and provide for the
public welfare. As one pharaoh expressed it: "He [a particular god] created me as one
who should do that which he had done, and to carry out that which he commanded should be
done. He appointed me herdsman of this land, for he knew who would keep it in order for
him."
Society and
Economy in Ancient Egypt
Egyptian society
had a simple structure in the Old and Middle Kingdoms; basically, it was organized along
hierarchical lines with the god-king at the top. The king was surrounded by an upper
class of nobles and priests who participated in the elaborate rituals of life that
surrounded the pharaoh. This ruling class ran the government and managed its own landed
estates, which provided much of its wealth.
Below the upper classes were
merchants and artisans. Within Egypt, merchants engaged in an active trade up and down the
Nile as well as in town and village markets. Some merchants also engaged in international
trade; they were sent by the king to Crete and Syria where they obtained wood and other
products. Expeditions traveled into Nubia for ivory and down the Red Sea to Punt for
incense and spices. Egyptian artisans exhibited unusually high standards of craftsmanship
and physical beauty, while producing an incredible variety of goods: stone dishes;
beautifully painted boxes made of clay; wooden furniture; gold, silver, and copper tools
and containers; paper and rope made of papyrus; and linen clothes.
By far, the largest
number of people in Egypt simply worked the land. In theory, the king owned all the land,
but granted out portions of it to his subjects. Large sections were in the possession of
nobles and the temple complexes. Moreover, although free farmers who owned their own land
had once existed, by the end of the Old Kingdom, this group had disappeared. Most of the
lower classes were serfs, or common people bound to the land, who cultivated the estates.
They paid taxes in the form of crops to the king, nobles, and priests, lived in small
villages or towns, and provided military service and forced labor for building projects.
The Culture of Egypt
Egypt produced a
culture that dazzled and awed its later conquerors. The Egyptians' technical achievements
alone, especially visible in the construction of the pyramids, demonstrated a measure of
skill unequaled in the world at that time. To the Egyptians, all of these achievements
were part of a cosmic order suffused with the presence of the divine.
SPIRITUAL LIFE IN EGYPTIAN SOCIETY
The Egyptians had
no word for religion, because it was an inseparable element of the entire world order to
which Egyptian society belonged. The Egyptians possessed a remarkable number of gods
associated with heavenly bodies and natural forces. Two groups, sun gods and land gods,
came to have special prominence, hardly unusual in view of the importance of the sun, the
river, and the fertile land along its banks to Egypt's well-being. The sun was the source
of life and hence worthy of worship. A sun cult developed, and the sun god took on
different forms and names, depending on his specific function. He was worshiped as Atum in human form and as Re, who had a human body but the head of a falcon. The pharaoh
took the title of "Son of Re," since he was regarded as the earthly embodiment
of Re. Eventually, Re became associated with Amon, an air god of Thebes, as Amon-Re.
River and land
deities included Osiris and Isis with their child Horus, who was related to the Nile and
to the sun as well. Osiris became especially important as a symbol of resurrection or
rebirth. A famous Egyptian myth told of the struggle between Osiris, who brought
civilization to Egypt, and his evil brother Seth, who killed him, cut his body into
fourteen parts, and tossed them into the Nile River. Osiris's faithful wife Isis found the
pieces and, with help from other gods, restored Osiris to life. Their son Horus avenged
his father by castrating Seth. As a symbol of resurrection and judge of the dead, Osiris
took on an important role for the Egyptians. By identifying with Osiris, one could hope to
gain new life, just as Osiris had done. The dead, embalmed and mummified, were placed in
tombs (in the case of kings, in pyramidal tombs), given the name of Osiris, and, by a
process of magical identification, became Osiris. Like Osiris, they would then be reborn.
The flood of the Nile and the new life it brought to Egypt were symbolized by Isis
gathering all of Osiris's parts together and were celebrated each spring in the festival
of the new land.
Later Egyptian
spiritual practice began to emphasize morality by stressing Osiris's role as judge of the
dead. The dead were asked to give an account of their earthly deeds to show whether they
deserved a reward. Other means were also employed to gain immortality. Magical
incantations, preserved in the Book of the Dead, were used to ensure a favorable
journey to a happy afterlife. Specific instructions explained what to do when confronted
by the judge of the dead. These instructions had two aspects. The negative confession gave
a detailed list of what one had not done:
What is said on reaching the Broad-Hall of the Two Justices [the place of the next-world
judgment], absolving X [the name and title of the deceased] of every sin which he had
committed. . . .
I have not
committed evil against men.
I have not mistreated cattle.
I have not blasphemed a god. . . .
I have not done violence to a poor man.
I have not done that which the gods abominate.
I have not defamed a slave to his superior.
I have not made anyone sick.
I have not made anyone weep.
I have not killed. . . .
I have not caused anyone suffering. . . .
I have not had sexual relations with a boy.
I have not defiled myself. . . .
Later the suppliant made a speech listing his good
actions: "I have done that which men said and that with which gods are content. ... I have given bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty,
clothing to the naked, and a ferry-boat to him who was marooned. I have provided divine
offerings for the gods and mortuary offerings for the .lead."
At first the Osiris cult was
reserved for the very wealthy who could afford to take expensive measures to preserve the
body after death. During the Middle Kingdom, however, the cult became
"democratized"—extended to all Egyptians who aspired to an afterlife.
THE
PYRAMIDS
One of the great
achievements of Egyptian civilization, the building of pyramids, occurred in the time of
the Old Kingdom. Pyramids were not built in isolation but as part of a larger complex
dedicated to the dead, in effect, a city of the dead. The area included a large pyramid
for the king's burial, smaller pyramids for his family, and mastabas, rectangular
structures with flat roofs, as tombs for the pharaoh's noble officials. The tombs were
well prepared for their residents. The rooms were furnished and stocked with numerous
supplies, including chairs, boats, chests, weapons, games, dishes, and a variety of foods.
The Egyptians believed that human beings had two bodies, a physical one and a spiritual
one, which they called the ka. If the physical body was properly preserved (hence
mummification) and the tomb furnished with all the various objects of regular life, the ka
could return and continue its life despite the death of the physical body. A pyramid was
not only the king's tomb, it was also an important symbol of royal power. It could be
seen for miles away as a visible reminder of the glory and might of the ruler who was a
living god on earth.
The largest and
most magnificent of all the pyramids was built under King Khufu. Constructed at Giza
around 2540 B.C.E., this famous Great Pyramid covers thirteen acres, measures 756 feet at
each side of its base, and stands 481 feet high. Its four sides are almost precisely
oriented to the four points of the compass. The interior included a grand gallery to the
burial chamber, which was built of granite with a lidless sarcophagus for the pharaoh's
body. The Great Pyramid still stands as a visible symbol of the power of Egyptian kings
and the spiritual conviction that underlay Egyptian society. No pyramid built later
ever matched its size or splendor.
ART
AND WRITING
Commissioned by
kings or nobles for use in temples and tombs, Egyptian art was largely functional. Wall
paintings and statues of gods and kings in temples served a strictly spiritual purpose.
They were an integral part of the performance of ritual, which was thought necessary to
preserve the cosmic order and hence the well-being of Egypt. Likewise, the mural scenes
and sculptured figures found in the tombs had a specific function. They were supposed to
assist the journey of the deceased into the afterworld.
Egyptian art was
also formulaic. Artists and sculptors were expected to observe a strict canon of
proportions that determined both form and presentation. This canon gave Egyptian art a
distinctive appearance for thousands of years. Especially characteristic was the
convention of combining the profile, semiprofile, and frontal views of the human body in
relief work and painting in order to represent each part of the body accurately. The
result was an art that was highly stylized, yet still allowed distinctive features to be
displayed.
Writing emerged in
Egypt during the first two dynasties. The Greeks later labeled Egyptian writing
hieroglyphics, meaning "priest-carvings" or "sacred writings."
Hieroglyphs were sacred characters used as picture signs that depicted objects and had a
sacred value at the same time. Although hieroglyphs were later simplified into two scripts
for writing purposes, they never developed into an alphabet. Egyptian hieroglyphs were
initially carved in stone, but later the two simplified scripts were written on papyrus, a
paper made from the papyrus reed that grew along the Nile. Most of the ancient Egyptian
literature that has come down to us was written on papyrus rolls and wooden tablets.