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– 30 (8)
p. 16 Code of Hammurabi
p. 20 The Great Floods
Civilization in
Mesopotamia
The Greeks spoke of
the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land "between
the rivers." The region receives little rain, but the soil of the plain of southern
Mesopotamia was enlarged and enriched over the years by layers of silt deposited by the
two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates overflow their banks and deposit
their fertile silt, but since this flooding depends upon the melting of snows in the
upland mountains where the rivers begin, it is irregular and sometimes catastrophic. In
such circumstances, farming could be accomplished only with human intervention in the form
of irrigation and drainage ditches. A complex system was required to control the flow of
the rivers and produce the crops. Large-scale irrigation made possible the expansion of
agriculture in this region, and the abundant food provided the material base for the
emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia.
The creators of the
first Mesopotamian civilization were the Sumerians, a people whose origins remain unclear.
By 3000 B.C.E., they had established a number of independent cities in southern
Mesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Umma, and Lagash. As the cities expanded in size,
they came to exercise political and economic control over the surrounding countryside,
forming city-states. These city-states were the basic units of Sumerian civilization.
Sumerian cities were
surrounded by walls. Uruk, for example, occupied an area of approximately a thousand acres
encircled by a wall six miles long with defense towers located every thirty to
thirty-five feet along the wall. City dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both
the small flats of peasants and the larger dwellings of the civic and priestly officials.
Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood for building purposes, it did have plenty of
mud. Mudbricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake in the hot sun until they were
hard enough to use for building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably inventive with
mudbricks, inventing the arch and the dome and constructing some of the largest brick
buildings in the world. Mudbricks are still used in rural areas of the Middle East
today.
The most prominent
building in a Sumerian city was the temple, which was dedicated to the chief god or
goddess of the city and often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The
Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities, and much wealth was used to
build temples as well as elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who served the
gods. Priests and priestesses, who supervised the temples and their property, had much
power. The temples owned much of the city land and livestock and served not only as the
physical center of the city, but also its economic and political center.
In fact, historians
believe that in the early stages of the city-states, priests and priestesses played an
important role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the gods ruled the cities, making
the state a theocracy (government by a divine authority). Eventually, however, ruling
power passed into the hands of worldly figures known as kings.
Sumerians viewed
kingship as divine in origin— kings, they believed, derived their power from the gods
and were the agents of the gods. Regardless of their origins, kings had power—they
led armies, initiated legislation, supervised the building of public works, provided
courts, and organized workers for the irrigation projects upon which Mesopotamian
agriculture depended. The army, the government bureaucracy, and the priests and
priestesses all aided the kings in their rule. Befitting their power, Sumerian kings lived
in large palaces with their wives and children.
The economy of the
Sumerian city-states was primarily agricultural, but commerce and industry became
important as well. The people of Mesopotamia produced woolen textiles, pottery, and the
metalwork for which they were especially well known. Foreign trade, which was primarily a
royal monopoly, could be extensive. Royal officials imported luxury items, such as copper
and tin, aromatic woods, and fruit trees, in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, wheat,
and the metal goods produced by Mesopotamian craftspeople. Traders traveled by land to the
eastern Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in the east. The invention of the
wheel around 3000 B.C.E. led to carts with wheels that made the transport of goods
easier.
Sumerian city-states
contained three major social groups—nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles included
royal and priestly officials and their families. Commoners included the nobles' clients
who worked for the palace and temple estates and other free citizens who worked as
farmers, merchants, fishermen, scribes, and craftspeople. Probably 90 percent or more of
the population were farmers. They could exchange their crops for the goods of the
artisans in free town markets. Slaves belonged to palace officials, who used them mostly
in building projects; temple officials, who used mostly female slaves to weave cloth and
grind grain; and rich landowners, who used them for farming and domestic work.
As the number of
Sumerian city-states grew and the states expanded, new conflicts arose as city-state
fought city-state for control of land and water. The fortunes of
Located in the flat
land of Mesopotamia, the Sumerian city-states were also open to invasion. To the north
of the Sumerian city-states were the Akkadians. We call them a Semitic people because of
the type of language they spoke (see Table 1.1). Around 2340 B.C.E., Sargon, leader of the
Akkadians, overran the Sumerian city-states and established an empire that included most
of Mesopotamia as well as lands westward to the Mediterranean. But the Akkadian empire
eventually disintegrated, and its end by 2100 B.C.E. brought a return to the system of
warring city-states until Ur-Nammu of Ur succeeded in reunifying most of Mesopotamia.
But this final flowering of Sumerian culture collapsed with the coming of the Amorites.
Under Hammurabi, the Amorites or Old Babylonians, a large group of Semitic-speaking
semi-nomads, created a new empire.
Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.) employed
a well-disciplined army of foot soldiers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze
daggers. He learned to divide his opponents and subdue them one by one. Using such
methods, he gained control of Sumer and Akkad and reunified Mesopotamia almost to the
old borders established by Sargon of Akkad. After his conquests, he called himself
"the sun of Babylon, the king who has made the four quarters of the world
subservient," and established a new capital at Babylon, north of Akkad. Hammurabi,
the man of war, was also a man of peace. He followed in the footsteps of previous
conquerors by assimilating Mesopotamian culture with the result that Sumerian ways
continued to exist despite the end of the Sumerians as a political entity. A collection of
his letters, found by archaeologists, reveals that he took a strong interest in state
affairs. He built temples, defensive walls, and irrigation canals; encouraged trade; and
brought an economic revival. After his death, however, a series of weak kings were unable
to keep Hammurabi's empire united, and it finally fell to new invaders.
Hammurabi is best
remembered for his law code, a collection of 282 laws (see the box on p. 16). For
centuries, laws had regulated people's relationships with one another in the lands of
Mesopotamia, but only fragments of these earlier codes survive. Hammurabi's collection
provides considerable insight into almost every aspect of everyday life. there and
provides us a priceless glimpse of the values of this early society.
The Code of
Hammurabi reveals a society with a system of strict justice. Penalties for criminal
offenses were severe and varied according to the social class of the victim. A crime
against a member of the upper class (a noble) by a member of the lower class (a
commoner) was punished more severely than the same offense against a member of the lower
class. Moreover, the principle of retaliation ("an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth") was fundamental to this system of justice. It was applied in cases where
members of the upper class committed crimes against their social equals. For crimes
against members of the lower classes, a money payment was made instead.
Hammurabi's code
took seriously the responsibilities of public officials. The governor of an area and city
officials were expected to catch burglars. If they failed to do so, the officials in the
district where the crime was committed had to replace the lost property. If murderers
were not found, the officials had to pay a fine to the relatives of the victim. Soldiers
were likewise expected to fulfill their duties and responsibilities for the order and
maintenance of the state. If a soldier hired a substitute to fight for him, he was put to
death, and the substitute was given control of his estate. Laws also sheltered ordinary
soldiers from the wrongful actions of their officers. An officer who forced someone to
join his army, took the goods of his soldiers, or wronged them seriously was executed.
The law code also
furthered the proper performance of work with what virtually amounted to consumer
protection laws. Builders were held responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a
house collapsed and caused the death of the owner, the builder was put to death. If the
collapse caused the death of the son of the owner, the son of the builder was put to
death. If goods were destroyed by the collapse, they had to be replaced and the house
itself reconstructed at the builder's expense.
The number of laws
in Hammurabi's code dedicated to land tenure and commerce reveals the importance of
agriculture and trade in the Mesopotamian economy. Numerous laws dealt with questions of
landholding, such as the establishment of conditions for renting farmland and the division
of produce between tenants and their landlords. Laws concerning land use and irrigation
were especially strict, an indication of the danger of declining crop yields if the lands
were used incompetently. Commercial activity was also carefully regulated. Rates of
interest on loans were watched closely. If the lender raised his rate of interest after
a loan was made, he lost the entire amount of the loan. The Code of Hammurabi even
specified the precise wages of laborers and artisans, such as brickmakers and jewelers.
The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi focused on marriage and the
family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. After marriage, the parties
involved signed a marriage contract; without it, no one was considered legally married.
While the husband provided a bridal payment, the woman's parents were responsible for a
dowry to the new husband. Dowries were carefully monitored and were governed by specific
regulations.
As in many
patriarchal societies, women possessed far fewer privileges and rights in the married
relationship than men. A woman's place was in the home, and failure to fulfill her
expected duties was grounds for divorce. If a woman was not able to bear children, her
husband could divorce her, but he did have to return the dowry to her family. If a wife
tried to leave home to engage in business, thus neglecting her house, her husband could
divorce her and did not have to repay the dowry. Furthermore, a wife who was a
"gadabout, . . . neglecting her house [and] humiliating her husband" could be
drowned. We do know that in practice not all women remained at home. Some worked in business
and were especially prominent in the running of taverns.
Women were
guaranteed some rights, however. If a woman was divorced without good reason, she received
the dowry back. A woman could seek divorce and get her dowry hack if her husband was
unable to show that she had done anything wrong. In theory, a wife was guaranteed use
of her husband's legal property in the event of his death. The mother could also decide
which of her sons would receive an inheritance.
Sexual relations
were strictly regulated as well. Husbands, but not wives, were permitted sexual activity
outside marriage. A wife caught committing adultery was pitched into the river, although
her husband could ask the king to pardon her. Incest was strictly forbidden. If a father
committed incestuous relations with his daughter, he would be banished. Incest between a
son and mother resulted in both being burned.
Fathers ruled their
children as well as their wives. Obedience was duly expected: "If a son has struck
his father, they shall cut off his hand." If a son committed a serious enough
offense, his father could disinherit him, although fathers were not permitted to
disinherit their sons arbitrarily.
A spiritual
worldview was of fundamental importance to Mesopotamian culture. To the peoples of
Mesopotamia, the gods were living realities who affected all aspects of life. It was
crucial, therefore, that the correct hierarchies be observed. Leaders could prepare armies
for war, but success really depended on a favorable relationship with the gods. This
helps to explain the importance of the priestly class and is the reason why even the kings
took great care to dedicate offerings and monuments to the gods.
The Mesopotamians
viewed their city/states as earthly copies of a divine model and order. Each city-state
was sacred since it was linked to a god or goddess. Hence, Nippur, the earliest center of
Sumerian religion, was dedicated to Enlil, the god of wind. Moreover, located at the
heart of each city-state was a temple complex. Occupying several acres, this sacred area
consisted of a ziggurat with a temple at the top dedicated to the god or goddess who owned
the city. The temple complex was the true center of the community. The main god or goddess
dwelt there symbolically in the form of a statue, and the ceremony of dedication included
a ritual that linked the statue to the god or goddess and thus supposedly harnessed the
power of the deity for the city's benefit. Considerable wealth was poured into the
construction of temples as well as other buildings used for the residences of priests and
priestesses who served the gods. Although the gods literally owned the city, the temple
complex used only part of the land and rented out the remainder. Essentially, the temples
dominated individual and commercial life, an indication of the close relationship of
Mesopotamian religion and culture.
The physical environment had an obvious impact on the Mesopotamian view of the universe. Ferocious floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and oppressive humidity were all part of the Mesopotamian climate. These conditions and the resulting famines easily convinced Mesopotamians that this world was controlled by supernatural forces and that the days of human beings "are numbered; whatever he may do, he is but wind," as The Epic of Gilgamesh put it. In the presence of nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem relates:
The rampant flood
which no man can oppose,
Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble,
In an appalling blanket folds mother and child,
Beats down the canebrake's full luxuriant greenery,
And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.
The Mesopotamians discerned cosmic rhythms in the universe and accepted its order, but perceived that it was not completely safe because of the presence of willful, powerful cosmic powers that they identified with gods and goddesses.
With its numerous
gods and goddesses animating all aspects of the universe, Mesopotamian religion was
polytheistic in nature. The four most important deities were An, Enlil, Enki, and
Ninhursaga. An was the god of the sky and hence the most important force in the universe.
Since his basic essence was authority, he was also viewed as the source or active
principle of all authority, including the earthly power of rulers and fathers alike.
Enlil, god of wind, was considered the second greatest power of the visible universe. In
charge of the wind and thus an expression of the legitimate use of force, Enlil became
the symbol of the proper use of force on earth as well. Enki was god of the earthy Since
the earth was the source of life-giving waters, Enki was also god of rivers, wells, and
canals. More generally, he represented the waters of creativity and was responsible for
inventions and crafts. Ninhursaga began as a goddess associated with soil, mountains, and
vegetation. Eventually, however, she was worshiped as a mother goddess, a "mother of
all children," who manifested her power by giving birth to kings and conferring the
royal insignia upon them.
Human beings'
relationship with the gods was based on subservience since, according to Sumerian myth,
human beings were created to do the manual labor the gods were unwilling to do for
themselves. Moreover, humans were insecure because they could never be sure of the gods'
actions. But humans did make attempts to circumvent or relieve their anxiety by
discovering the intentions of the gods; these efforts gave rise to the development of
the arts of divination.
Divination took a
variety of forms. A common form, at least for kings and priests who could afford it,
involved killing animals, such as sheep or goats, and examining their livers or other
organs. Supposedly, features seen in the organs of the sacrificed animals foretold events
to
come. Thus, one handbook states that if the animal organ has shape "x", then the outcome of the military campaign will be "y". Private individuals relied on cheaper divinatory techniques. These included interpreting patterns of smoke from burning incense or the pattern formed when oil was poured into water. The Mesopotamian arts of divination arose out of the desire to discover the purposes of the gods. If people could decipher the signs that foretold events, the events would be predictable and humans could act wisely.
The realization of
writing's great potential was another aspect of Mesopotamian culture. The oldest
Mesopotamian texts date to around 3000 B.C.E. and were written by the Sumerians, who used
a cuneiform ("wedge-shaped") system of writing. Using a reed stylus, they made
wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. Once
dried, these tablets were virtually indestructible, and the several hundred thousand
that have been found so far have provided a valuable source of information for modern
scholars. Sumerian writing evolved from pictures of concrete objects to simplified and
stylized signs, leading eventually to a phonetic system that made possible the written
expression of abstract ideas.
Mesopotamian peoples
used writing primarily for record keeping. The most common cuneiform tablets record
transactions of daily life: tallies of cattle kept by herdsmen for their owners,
production figures, lists of taxes and wage payments, accounts, contracts, and court
decisions affecting business life. There are also monumental texts, documents that were
intended to last forever, such as inscriptions etched in stone on statues and royal
buildings.
Still another
category of cuneiform inscriptions includes the large body of basic texts produced for
teaching purposes. Schools for scribes were in operation by 2500 B.C.E. They were
necessary because considerable time was needed to master the cuneiform system of writing.
The primary goal of scribal education was to produce professionally trained scribes for
careers in the temples and palaces, the military, and government service. Pupils were male
and primarily from wealthy families. Gradually, the schools became important centers for
culture because Mesopotamian literature was utilized for instructional purposes.
Writing was
important because it enabled a society to keep records and maintain knowledge of previous
practices and events. Writing also made it possible for people to communicate ideas in
new ways, which is especially evident in Mesopotamian literary works. The most famous
piece of Mesopotamian literature was The Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem that records the
exploits of a legendary king of Uruk. Gilgamesh, wise, strong and perfect in body, part
man, part god, befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together, they set off in pursuit of
heroic deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh experiences the pain of mortality and enters
upon a search for the secret of immortality. But his efforts fail (see the box on p. 20).
Gilgamesh remains mortal. The desire for immortality, one of humankind's great searches,
ends in complete frustration. "Everlasting life," as this Mesopotamian epic
makes clear, is only for the gods.
Peoples in
Mesopotamia also made outstanding achievements in mathematics and astronomy. In math, the
Sumerians devised a number system based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for
practical solutions.
Geometry was used to
measure fields and erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians made use of units of 60
and charted the heavenly constellations. Their calendar was based on twelve lunar months
and was brought into harmony with the solar year by adding an extra month from time to
time.
The Impact of the Indo-Europeans
[Also
significant in the history of ancient Mesopotamia] is the role of the Indo-European peoples. The term Indo-European
refers to people who used a language derived from a single parent tongue. Indo-European
languages include Greek, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, and the Germanic and Slavic languages
(set-Table 1.2). It has been suggested that the original Indo-European-speaking peoples
were based somewhere in the steppe region north of the Black Sea or in southwestern
Asia, in modern Iran or Afghanistan. Although there had been earlier migrations, around
2000 B.C.E. they began major nomadic movements into Europe (including present-day Italy
and Greece), India, and western Asia. One group of Indo-Europeans who moved into Asia
Minor and Anatolia (modern Turkey) around 1750 B.C.E. coalesced with the native peoples
to form the Hittite kingdom with its capital at Hattusha (Bogazkoy in modern Turkey).
Between 1600 and
1200 B.C.E., the Hittites created their own empire in western Asia and even threatened the
power of the Egyptians. The Hittites were the first of the Indo-European peoples to make
use of iron, enabling them to construct weapons that were stronger and cheaper to make
because of the widespread availability of iron ore. But around 1200 B.C.E., new waves of
invading Indo-European peoples destroyed the Hittite empire. The destruction of the
Hittite kingdom and the weakening of Egypt around 1200 B.C.E. temporarily left no
dominant powers in western Asia, allowing a patchwork of petty kingdoms and city-states
to emerge, especially in the area of Syria and Palestine. The Phoenicians were one of
these peoples.
p. 16 - The Code of
Hammurabi
Although there were
earlier 'Mesopotamian law codes, Hammurabi's is the most complete. It was inscribed on a
stele (stone) topped by a bas-relief depicting Hammurabi receiving the inspiration for
the law code from the sun-god Shamash, who was also the god of justice. The law code
emphasizes the principle of retribution ("an eye for an eye') and punishments that
vary according to social status. Punishments could be severe. Marriage and family affairs
also play a large role in the code. The following examples illustrate these concerns.
The Code of
Hammurabi
25. If fire broke
out in a free man's house and a free man, who went to extinguish it, cast his eye on the
goods of the owner of the house and has appropriated the goods of the owner of the house,
chat free man shall be thrown into that fire.
129. If the wife of
a free man has been caught while lying with another man, they shall bind them and throw
them into the water. If the husband of the woman wishes to spare his wife, then the king
in turn may spare his subject.
131. If a free man's
wife was accused by her husband, but she was not caught while lying with another man, she shall
make affirmation by god and return to her house.
196. If a free man has
destroyed the eye of a member of the aristocracy, they shall destroy his
eye.
198.If he has destroyed
the eye of a commoner or broken the bone of a commoner, he shall pay one mina of silver.
199. If he has destroyed
the eye of a free man's slave or broken the bone of a free man's slave, he shall pay
one-half his value. If a free man struck
another free man's daughter and has caused her to have a miscarriage, he shall pay ten
shekels of silver for her fetus.
210. If that woman
has died, they shall put his daughter to death.
211. If by a blow he
has caused a commoner's daughter to have a miscarriage, he shall pay five shekels of
silver.
212. If that woman has
died, he shall pay one-half mina of silver.
213. If he struck a free
man's female slave and has caused her to have a miscarriage, he shall pay two shekels of
silver.
214 If that female slave
has died, he shall pay one-third mina of silver.
p. 20 - The Great
Flood
The great epic poem
of Mesopotamian literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh, includes an account by Ut' napishtim
(a Mesopotamian version of the later biblical Noah), who had built a ship and
survived the flood unleashed by the gods to destroy humankind. In this selection, Utnapishtim
recounts his story to Gilgamesh, telling how the god Ea advised him to build a boat and
how he came to land the boat at the end of the flood.
The Epic of
Gilgamesh
"In those days
the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world bellowed like a wild bull, and the
great god was aroused by the clamor. Enlil heard the clamor and he said to the gods in
council, 'The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason
of the babel.' So the gods agreed to exterminate mankind. Enlil did this, but Ea [Sumerian
Enki, god of the waters] because of his oath warned me in a dream. . . . 'tear down your
house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and
save your soul alive. Tear down your house, I say, and build a boat. . . . then take up
into the boat the seed of all living creatures. . . .' [Utnapishtim did as he was told and
then the destruction came.]
"For six days
and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world,
tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts. When the seventh day dawned the storm
from the south subsided, the sea grew calm, the flood was stilled; I looked at the face of
the world and there was silence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea
stretched as flat as a roof-top; I opened a hatch and the light fell on my face. Then I
bowed low, I sat down and I wept, the tears streamed down my face, for on every side was
the waste of water. I looked for land in vain, but fourteen leagues distant there appeared
a mountain, and there the boat grounded; on the mountain of Nisir the boat held fast, she
held fast and did not budge. . . . When the seventh day dawned I loosed a dove and let her
go. She flew away, but finding no resting-place she returned. Then I loosed a
swallow, and she flew away but finding no resting-place she returned. I loosed a raven, she saw that
the waters had retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and she did not come back.
Then I threw everything open to the four winds, I made a sacrifice and poured out a
libation on the mountain top."